The Bees and the Birds
by Susan McWilliams
Spring 2004
This photo is courtesy and copyright of:
www.everythingabout.net/articles/biology/animals/
arthropods/insects/bees/honey_bee/
Bee keeping photos are shared by and copyright of Susan McWilliams.
The purpose of this article is to familiarize HBNL readers with the importance of bees and pollination to plant production.
Below I review the process of pollination and the role of bees in this process. I discuss the status of bees and other pollinators, and I review actions that will help enhance the current bee population. Other than a few references to birds as pollinators, this article has little to do with birds, at least on the surface. So why does it appear in HBNL? Pollination and pollinators are fundamental necessities in plant production and reproduction. Simply stated, the ultimate implication of current threats to pollination and pollinators is a food shortage for all animals. This includes you and me, and birds. As one beekeeper told me, bees are like canaries in the mines.
PollinationPollination is the process by which pollen is transferred from the anthers of flowers, the male element, to the stigma, or female element, of the same flower. This transfer precedes fertilization, in which the pollen tubes grow down the stigma from the implanted pollen grains to the ovary. Cell nuclei from the pollen grain and the ovary then fuse to begin the process of ovulation.
Many plants, such as coniferous trees and many grains, do not require pollination agents. In these plants, pollination occurs as a result of the transfer of pollen through the air. The pollen of such plants is released in large quantities and is very light (a light breeze is sufficient to result in pollen transfer). Other characteristics of this type of pollen, for example its smoothness and, in the case of pine pollen, its balloon like sacs, assist in transfer by air.
In contrast, insect pollination is necessary in the production of most fruits and vegetables that we eat and in the reproduction of many crops on which livestock forage. The pollen of plants which require pollination agents has different characteristics, such as a spiny surface, so that the pollen more readily clings to the pollination agent. In the case of plants which are not air-pollinated, the role of the pollination agent is critical. Even in the case of the so-called “self-fertile” plants (those which are able to produce viable seed with their own pollen), plant production and health may be enhanced by cross-pollination with other plants through a pollination agent (Meyer, 1982; Ingram, Nabhan, and Buchmann, 1996).
Bees as Pollinators
The primary agents of pollination, other than air, are bees and other insects, birds, and bats. The humming bird is the best-known bird pollinator, but there are other nectar-eating birds which act as pollinators, for example the less well known honey creeper of Hawaii, sunbirds, sugarbirds, and brush-tongued parrots. I focus here on the role of bees as pollinators.
Like other pollinating agents, bees pollinate as part of their own food gathering. Part of our own interest in bees is the “dance” which bees use to communicate with each other about food sources. This dance is actually quite elaborate and is central to bees’ food seeking and finding, to their own survival, and thus to pollination.
When a “seeker bee” has found a food source, she returns to the hive and signals to others the presence of the food source. She
“...begins to perform what I have called a round dance. On the same spot she turns around, once to the right, once to the left, repeating these circles again and again with great vigor...During the dance, the bees around the dancer become greatly excited; they troop behind her as she circles, keeping their antennae close to her body...Suddenly one of them turns away and leaves the hive. Others do likewise, and soon some of these bees appear at the feeding place. After they have returned home, they also dance, and the more bees there are dancing inside the hive the more appear at the feeding place.” (Von Frisch, 1971, p. 72)
Through a complex combination of dance, scent, and other signals, the bees communicate the presence and location of food sources to each other. They feed off these sources, and in doing so, they spread pollen. In spreading pollen, they pollinate, and in pollinating, they play a fundamental role in the reproduction of plant life.
Status of Pollinators
Most current estimates indicate that wild bees in the United States have all but disappeared. Similar declines in wild bee populations have also occurred world-wide. Historically, of the 100 or so crops that feed the world, eighty percent were pollinated by wild bees. This is no longer the case. The demise of the wild bee population is attributable to habitat loss, pesticide poisoning, diseases, and pests.
With the demise of the wild bee population, the use of commercial bee populations in the pollination of crops became widespread . Whynott (1991, pp. 1-2) describes this practice at its peak:
“According to the U.S. Department of Agriculture, there are 212,000 beekeepers in the United States, and they own about four million hives of honeybees. About two thousand of these beekeepers are professionals, commercial beekeepers, with large colony counts and full-time crews. This one percent of the beekeeping population owns 50 percent (two million) of the hives.
Half of the commercial beekeepers, roughly a thousand of them, migrate with their bees. They follow the bloom, north in the summer, south in the winter...They are like the old-style cowboys who herded cattle across the open ranges, except they move their bees by trailer trucks over the interstate highway and country roads...The greater value of the beekeepers and their stock, by a hundredfold, is in pollination...Migratory beekeepers provide virtually all of the honeybees for pollination on large farms.”
As Whynott so eloquently describes in his book, Following the Bloom, the use of commercial bee colonies for the purposes of pollination in large-scale agriculture is an enterprise that, like its cowboy/Western frontier counterpart, tells an epic tale. However, it is also fundamentally a tale of the conflict between human activity and natural process. The use of commercial honey bees for pollination is necessary due to the demise of wild bees. And now the availability of commercial bees for such use is itself on the decline.
“The number of commercial U.S. bee colonies plummeted from 5.9 million in the late 1940's to 4.3 million in 1985, and 2.7 million in 1995. The loss of one quarter of all managed honey bee colonies since 1990 signals one of the most severe declines U.S. agriculture has ever experienced in such a short period. There are fewer bee hives in the U.S. today than at any time in the last 50 years.” (Ingram, Nabhan, and Buchmann, 1996)
The decline of the commercial honey bee population results from a variety of factors. One is the decline of the commercial honey business itself.1 Commercial honey bee populations have also been poisoned by the use of insecticides in agriculture. While commercial honey bee colonies can be moved away from the site of pesticide use, they are not free of risk. Some estimate that 20% of all losses of honey bee colonies involve pesticide exposure (Pimental, et al., 1992). And bees are not the only pollinators hard hit by loss of habitat, toxins, and other threats. At least 2 bat and 13 bird species listed as endangered by the US Fish and Wildlife Service are pollinators (Nabhan, 1996).
Commercial and hobby beekeeping also have been very adversely affected by disease and death in the colony caused by parasitic mites. While some safeguards may be utilized to minimize the risk of mites, for example, bans on the importation of bees from infested areas within and outside the U.S., other solutions, such as treating the hive with chemicals, are effective, but are rejected by many beekeepers, commercial and hobbyist, because they obviously contaminate the purity of the hive.
ImplicationsAs a consequence of the almost total eradication of the wild bee population, the decline of the commercial honey bee population, and threats to other pollinators, the process of pollination and, with it, of plant production, are themselves threatened. This means that food supplies for a variety of animals, including humans, are at least at risk. Some are actively imperiled. So what can be done?
“We must recognize that pollination is not a free service, and that investment and stewardship are required to protect and sustain it. Economic assessments of agricultural productivity should account for the cost of sustaining wild and managed pollinator populations. U.S. policy makers responsible for the recent cut in long-standing subsidies to beekeepers for honey production have further jeopardized the pollination services provided by honey bees...Policy makers must begin devising programs that reward farmers for implementing practices to protect the habitats of wild pollinators and provide incentives for those who wish to manage a wider variety of pollinators...” (Ingram, et al., 1996).
What can you do? You can, of course, lobby policy makers along the lines indicated above. You can support commercial and hobbyist beekeepers in your area. You can keep bees (yes, you can!) or, at least, you can maintain “bee friendly” environments. I briefly consider each of these in turn.
1.Affecting pesticide use in the U.S.
- *(purchase foods which are produced by pesticide free processes, or by processes which involve responsible use of organic pest and weed control.
- (monitor/respond to pesticide related legislation and other actions in your state and elsewhere (http://www.pestlaw.com/legislation/)
2. Support area commercial and hobbyist beekeepers:
- Many states have state beekeeping associations, to which both commercial and hobbyist beekeepers often belong. Contact these organizations to learn what efforts are being made in your area to protect natural pollinators and commercial bee pollination.
- Purchase honey and other bee products from local suppliers. The health benefits of honey and other bee-related products are many (see, for example, http://www.nhb.org/research/). Buying from local suppliers and producers can help insure the livelihood of these businesses, and thus contribute to the survival of the local bee population.
- Don’t freak out when you see bee hives going up in a neighbor’s yard. Honey bees have a much milder temperament than most people think. It pays for them to do so. Unlike wasps, for example, when a honey bee stings, it sacrifices its life to do so (the queen may sting numerous times, but the workers cannot). Bees sting, but honey bees have good reason to do so judiciously. I have yet to be stung by the bees in our hives. My husband has been, but only when he has inadvertently killed bees at the site of the hive. For example, he once inadvertently dropped one corner of a heavily laden frame onto the rim of the hive, crushing a number of bees in the process. As a consequence, he was stung numerous times in his then un-gloved hand. If I did more direct handling of the hives, I would wear protective gear (e.g., hat with veil, gloves, etc.). However, I observe at fairly close quarters when my husband works the hive, and I do not wear protective clothing at these times. He routinely works the hives with just his bee hat, a slightly heavier shirt with closed cuffs, pants secured at the ankles, and gloves. If you do not bother your neighbor’s hives, their inhabitants will not bother you.
3. Keep bees:
- When you contact your state bee keeping association, ask for information on getting started for the hobbyist beekeeper. My husband began keeping bees several years ago. With a modest financial investment, reasonable labor, and some fortitude (we’ve experienced the loss of two hives, one to a swarm and one to mites) we have enjoyed beekeeping on a small scale. We and our friends have enjoyed the honey as well. Keeping bees is a fascinating hobby and much less daunting than we expected. You will find a variety of sources of information on beekeeping in the references and resources listed at the end of this piece.
4. Maintain bee-friendly environments:
- Feed the birds and the bees: include nectar and host plants for pollinators in your gardens. Your state beekeeping association can help you determine the best plants for pollinators in your area. Some of these are standard but some may be particularly suited to your climate, etc. The nice thing about plants which attract pollinators is that they are so often pleasing to the human eye and nose as well. I choose to hang hummingbird feeders as well, although many times I find the hummingbirds in my yard paying more attention to the flowers than the feeder. This despite the fact that I am no gardener, and some years my planting efforts don’t extend much beyond a few home-made hanging baskets.
- Rely on organic methods of pest and weed control. I believe we can lead by example, and that if non-toxic practices are followed to the extent possible in our own backyards, we can help detoxify the environment, one back yard at a time. This of course does not address the toxic effects of large scale practices such as those used in most commercial agriculture, but there are lots of backyards in the United States...
On that sparkling sheet of white, Allan Ratcliffe |
A few hours after I added the above poem to conclude this piece, my husband informed me that he was down to visit our bees today. We live in Maine, and this year (2004) we have had a particularly bitterly cold winter, with extended periods of night time temperatures below zero (F) and day time highs in the 5-10 degree (F) range. We were certain our bees, already depleted by a late season partial swarm in August, were dead. On the day of this writing, it was near 40 degrees (F). My husband reports that there were a few bees flying around the hive mouth today, many more walking about on their “launching pad,” drinking from melted snow there. We are not out of the woods yet. This is a difficult season for bees in Maine. We are months away still from spring flowerings. It will be very damp. Our bees also show signs of Nosema disease (a protazoan parasite which results in diarrhea and wasting), which may result in the death of the hive anyway, though we will begin treating for it tomorrow. While we wrapped and otherwise prepared the hive last fall, there is little we can do for our bees during the depths of winter. But we can tend them as best we can, in our own backyard, and beyond, and wait for their emergence in the spring, on buzzing wing.
References and Resources
Dadant, C.P. 1976. First Lessons in Beekeeping. Hamilton, ILL: Dadant and Sons.
Root, A.I. and E. R. 1917. The ABC and XYZ of Bee Culture. Medina, Ohio: The A.I. Root Company
Frisch, Karl von. 1971. Bees: Their Vision, Chemical Senses, and Language. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
Ingram, Yrill, Gary Nabhan, and Stepehen Buchmann. 1996. “Our Forgotten Pollinators: Protecting the Birds and Bees”. http://www.pmac.net/birdbee.htm
Meyer, Owen. 1982. The Beekeeper(s Handbook: A Practical Manual of Bee Management. Wellingborough, Northamptonshire, England: Thorsons Publishers Limited.
Pimentel, D., et al. 1992. “Environmental and economic costs of pesticide use.” Bioscience 42(10): 750-760.
Whynott, Douglas. 1991. Following the Bloom: Across America with the Migratory Beekeepers. Harrisburg, PA: Stackpole Books
http://natzoo.si.edu/Publications/ZooGoer/1995/4/
pollinationfloralsexuality.cfm
http://www.pathtofreedom.com/backtobasics/animals/article_bees.shtml
http://www.ingenbees.com/
http://www.birdfeeding.org
http://www.pestlaw.com/legislation/
http://www.nhb.org/research
1The economic and governmental contributors to decreasing numbers of commercial beekeepers in the U.S. are beyond the scope of this article. They are discussed in a variety of sources. See, for example, http://www.beemaster.com/honeybee/beehome.htm.